Philosophy Jokes to Understand the Self and Cognition

Philosophy of mind is a rich field for jokes since quite a lot of humor is about the strangeness of being human and the difference between knowing something from the outside and knowing it from the inside (i.e. from a subjective perspective). Here are a few choice items. The Silent Parrot A man sees a parrot in a pet shop and asks how much it costs. â€Å"Well, he’s a good talker, says the owner, â€Å"so I can’t let him go for less than $100.†            Ã‚   â€Å"Hmm,† says the man, â€Å"that ‘s a bit steep. How about that miniature turkey over there? â€Å"Oh, I’m afraid he’d stretch your budget even more†, answers the owner. â€Å"That turkey sells for $500.† â€Å"What!† exclaims the customer. â€Å"How come the turkey’s five times the price of the parrot when the parrot can talk and the turkey can’t? â€Å"Ah, well, â€Å"says the store owner. â€Å"It’s true the parrot can talk and the turkey can’t. But that turkey is a remarkable phenomenon. He’s a philosopher.   He may not talk, but he thinks! The joke here, of course, is that the claim about the turkey’s ability to think is unverifiable since it doesn’t manifest itself in any way that is publicly observable. Empiricism in all its forms tends to be skeptical of any such claims. In the philosophy of mind, one robust form of empiricism is behaviorism. Behaviorists hold that all talk of â€Å"private†, â€Å"inner† mental events, should be translatable into statements about observable behavior (which includes linguistic behavior). If this can’t be done, then the claims about inner mental states are unverifiable and hence meaningless, or at least unscientific. Behaviourism Q: How does a behaviorist greet another behaviorist? A: Youre feeling fine. How am I? The point here is that behaviorists reduce all mental concepts to descriptions of how people behave. They do this because of behavior, unlike a person’s inner thought and feelings, is publicly observable. Part of the motivation for doing this is to make psychology more scientific–or at least more the â€Å"hard† sciences such as physics and chemistry which consist entirely of descriptions of objective phenomena. The problem, though, at least as far as the critics of behaviorism are concerned, is that we all know perfectly well that we aren’t just a lump of nature exhibiting patterns of behavior. We have consciousness, subjectivity, what has been called an â€Å"inscape.† To deny this, or to deny that our private access to it can be a source of knowledge (e.g. about how we are feeling) is absurd. And it leads to the sort of absurdity captured in the above exchange. Knowledge of Other Minds A four-year-old girl comes running to her father bawling loudly and holding her head. â€Å"What’s wrong, honey?† asks the concerned parent. Between sobs, the girl explains that she’d been playing with her nine-month-old baby brother when the baby had suddenly grabbed her hair and pulled hard. â€Å"Oh well†, says her father, these things are bound to happen sometimes. You see, the baby doesn’t know that when he pulls your hair he’s hurting you. Comforted, the girl goes back to the nursery. But a minute later there’s another outburst of sobbing and screaming. The father goes to see what the problem is now and finds that this time it’s the baby who’s in tears. â€Å"What’s the matter with him?† he asks his daughter. â€Å"Oh, nothing much, she says. â€Å"Only now he knows.† A classic problem of modern philosophy is whether I can justify my belief that other people have subjective experiences similar to mine. The joke illustrates the significant fact that this is a belief we acquire very early in life. The girl has no doubt that the baby feels pain similar to her own. It may also tell us something about how we arrive at this belief. Interestingly, what the girl says at the end is quite possibly false. The baby may only know that his sister did something to his head which hurt. That might be enough to stop him pulling her hair in future. But it won’t be too long before he goes beyond mere pragmatic avoidance of hair pulling and accepts the standard explanation of why he should he eschew it. The Unconscious A hunter is stalking through the forest when he is suddenly charged by a bear. HE shoots but misses.   In seconds, the bear is upon him. It grabs his gun and breaks it in two. It then proceeds to sodomize the hunter. The hunter is, of course, furious. Two days later he returns to the forest with a brand new high-powered rifle. All day he hunts for the bear, and towards dusk comes across it. As he aims the bear charges.   Again the shot goes wide. Again the bear grabs the gun, smashes it to bits and then sodomizes the hunter. Beside himself with rage, the hunter returns the next day with an AK 47. After another long search he finds the bear, but this time the carriage jams as he tries to shoot the charging animal. Once again the bear breaks apart the weapon and throws it away. But this time, instead of taking the usual liberties, he puts his paws on the man’s shoulders and says, gently: â€Å"Let’s be honest with each other. This isn’t really about hunting, is it?† This is a pretty funny joke. One thing interesting about it, though, is that it relies on the listener understanding that the bear’s words refer to unconscious motivations and desires. Since Freud, the existence of these is widely accepted. But at the time of Descartes, the notion that you could have thoughts, beliefs, wishes, and motives that you were not aware of would have been considered absurd by many people. The mind was thought to be transparent; anything â€Å"in† it could be readily identified and examined through introspection. So back in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, this joke would probably have fallen flat. Descartess Death The great French philosopher Rene Descartes is most famous for his statement, â€Å"I think, therefore I am.† He made this certainty the starting point of his entire philosophy. What is less known is that he died in rather unusual circumstances. He was sitting in a cafà © one day when a waiter approached him, coffee pot in hand. â€Å"Would you like more coffee, monsieur?† asked the waiter. â€Å"I think not,† Descartes replied---and poof! . . . he disappeared.

Revisiting The Fisher Hypothesis - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4471 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Revisiting The Fisher Hypothesis: The Case Of India CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY In 1930 Irving Fisher investigated the relationship between the nominal interest rate, the real interest rate and expected rates of inflation. He discovered that a long-run equilibrium relationship existed between the nominal rate of inflation and expected rate of inflation. More commonly referred to as the Fisher effect, Fisher (1930) found that a one percent increase in the rate of inflation would be reflected by a one percent increase in the nominal interest rate leaving the real rate of interest unchanged. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Revisiting The Fisher Hypothesis" essay for you Create order The fact that the Fisher hypothesis involves such key macroeconomic variables such as interest rates and inflation has led to numerous empirical analyses. A key motivation behind many of these studies relates to how the fisher hypothesis affects monetary policy and monetary neutrality models of any country. As Carneiro, Divino and Rocha (2002) point out, validation of the Fisher effect would imply that real interest rates are unaffected by anticipated changes to either money supply, or the rate of inflation. Nussair (2009), Peng (2009) and Hawtrey (1997) highlight the importance of understanding the behaviour of real interest rates with regards to not only intertemporal savings and investment decisions, but also other fundamental variables such as exchange rates through its influence on trade and capital flows. The Fisher hypothesis has endured years of empirical testing, however, the vast majority of the studies have utilised data from major developed countries such as the USA, UK and Australia, and have yielded mixed results. 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY In comparison, the amount of empirical studies of the Fisher effect in developed countries is far greater than the amount of studies that exist for the Fisher effect in developing countries. India is one of the most well-known developing counties in the world, combined with the countrys phenomenally high economic growth rate and Therefore, this study seeks to extend the recent work of Balachandra (2008) by testing for the Fisher effect in a developing economy, and centres on testing in India. The methodology utilised follows The data is analysed over the period This study is organized as follows: CHAPTER 2 – THEORY LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 THEORY In 1930 Irving Fisher investigated the relationship between UK interest rates and inflation. In his analysis of the relationship he decomposed interest rates into nominal interest rates and real rates of interest. The connection of all three variables is described below: = (1.1) With: ( ) = Real interest rate, simply defined as the improvement in purchasing power = Nominal rate of interest, simply defined as the rate of interest paid by banks ( ) = Rate of inflation, simply defined as the general rise in price levels in the economy. It states that the real rate of interest reflects the difference between the nominal interest rate and the rate of inflation. Rearranging the equation produces: = + (1.2) More accurately, because future rates of inflation cannot be predicted, expected rates of inflation are used, therefore the equation becomes: = + (1.3) The above Fisher equation shows that the summation of the real rate of interest ( ) and the expected rate of inflation ( ) can be expressed as the nominal rate of interest ( ). The equation implies that changes in real interest rates and/or expected rates of inflation would change the nominal rate of interest. Fisher (1930) puts forward that because capital productivity and technological constraints are the most significant factors that affect real interest rates, major changes in nominal rates of interest should reflect increases in expected inflation and unstable prices. In a practical context, using rational expectations and the theory of efficient capital markets the fisher equation can encompass the actions of rational agents such as savers. Most savers would understand the risk associated with an expected reduction in their future purchasing power, and the negative effect it would have on their own wealth. As a precaution to this, most would chose to invest their money. This leads to a overall increase in the level of investment and the demand for financial assets subsequently increasing the amount of loanable funds, which in turn would lead to a reduction in real rate of interest1. Fisher (1930) supported that the increase in expected rates of inflation would be larger than the decrease in real interest rates to such a level that, nominal interest rates would rise following a rise in expected rates of inflation. The one-for-one relationship between the nominal interest rate and expected rates of inflation, with the notion of a constant real rate of interest over time, is what is commonly referred to as the Fisher effect. As mentioned earlier, there is a vast amount of empirical literature that has tested the extent to which the Fisher effect holds. Significant differences in estimation techniques, econometric methodologies, proxies for inflationary expectation, and countries that have been analysed have led to a variety of results. The next section discusses the variety of studies and focuses on literature that has tested for the fisher effect in developing or emerging economies. 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW Since the seminal work of Fisher (1930) the Fisher hypothesis has been studied extensively especially in developed countries such as America (US). Mishkin (1992) investigated the relationship between US inflation rates and interest rates and produced evidence supporting the existence of a long-run Fisher effect, but could not validate the existence of a short-run fisher effect. Mishkin (1992) differentiated between the long-run Fisher effect and the short-run Fisher effect. He described the long-run fisher effect as the long run trending of interest rates and inflation rates, in which expected rates of inflation were reflected in long-term interest rates. The short-run Fisher effect was described as changes in expected rates of inflation being reflected in short-term interest rates. He analysed monthly data over 1953-1990 and applied the Engle and Granger (1987) methodology to test for the presence of cointegration between rates of inflation and interest rates. His findings suggest ed that interest rates and inflation rates moved together and would converge to a long-run equilibrium, subsequently supporting the existence of the long-run Fisher effect. Crowder and Hoffman (1996) also tested for the fisher effect in the US and looked at 3-month US Treasury Bill rates and inflation rates over 1952-1991. They employed Johansens (1988) maximum likelihood methodology and also found evidence of a long-run cointegrating relationship. Their results showed that changes in expected inflation led to adjustments in the nominal interest rate however, they found that the adjustment was greater than the ‘one-for-one basis hypothesised by Fisher (1930). Other significant studies of the fisher effect in the US, that apply the Johansen cointegration tests include Fahmy and Kandil (2003), Chu, Pittman Yu (2003), Yuhn (1996), and Pelà ¡ez (1995). The majority of literature that analyses the fisher effect in the US, finds sufficient evidence to support the fisher hypothesis , however studies involving other developed countries have produced varying results. In Yuhns (1996) analysis of data from the UK, US, Germany, Japan and Canada, satisfactory support for the existence of the fisher effect could not be found for either Canada or the UK. Ghazali and Ramlee (2003) were also unable to determine a long-run relationship between nominal interest rates and rates of inflation in their analysis of the G7 countries between 1974 and 1996. Koustas and Serletis (1999) using Engle and Granger (1987) cointegration examine 11 countries (Germany, France, the Netherlands, the UK, the US, Canada, Belgium, Greece, Ireland, Denmark and Japan) but their results suggest little evidence to support the fisher effect. In contrast, Granville and Mallick (2004) follow a similar methodology in their analysis and find that the linear combination of both UK nominal interest rates and inflation appears to be stationary, supporting the fisher hypothesis. The majority of empiri cal studies of the fisher effect in Australia have to a reasonable extent, shown support for the fisher hypothesis. Studies by Mishkin and Simon (1995) find support for the existence of the long-run fisher effect with inflationary expectations, for the period 1962-1993. In addition, Olekalns (1996) and Hawtrey (1997) are able to verify the fisher effect during certain periods following the deregulation of the financial system (1984-1994). However, Inder and Silvapulle (1993) find results that conflict with the fisher hypothesis in their study over the period 1965-1990, rejecting postulated relationship between nominal interest rates and expected rates of inflation. The majority of the empirical research conducted on the fisher effect has focused on developed countries, with broadly consistent results. In comparison, there are only a few significant studies investigating the fisher effect in developing countries. In a more recent study, Berument and Jelassi (2002) conduct an ac ross-the-board study of the fisher hypothesis by sampling a mix of 26 developing and developed countries, including India. They focus on finding a positive long-run linear relationship between nominal interest rates and expected rates of inflation (explanatory variable), by analysing the short-run movement of interest rates. The strength of the fisher effect was dependent on the coefficient estimate, a strong form of the fisher effect would be represented by a positive coefficient estimate equal to one, whereas a weak form would have an positive estimate but less than one. The authors find evidence for the strong form of the Fisher effect in 16 out of the 26 countries sampled, and establish that the amount of evidence supporting the Fisher hypothesis in developed countries is greater than that in developing countries. Berument Ceylan Olgun (2007) extend previous empirical work by testing the strength of the Fisher hypothesis, and similarly try to establish a positive relationship b etween expected inflation and interest rates, but this time use a sample of 52 countries. They find that out of the 45 developing countries there was not enough evidence to support the fisher hypothesis in 22 of them, on the other hand they were able to find evidence of the fisher effect in all the G7 countries tested. Kasman, Kasman Turgutlu (2005) use a similar fractional cointegration technique to those applied by Lardic and Mignon (2003) and Ghazali and Ramlee (2003) to validate the Fisher hypothesis in a mixture of 33 developed and developing countries, including India. Their motivation for using a fractional cointegration methodology in order to verify a long-run relationship between nominal interest rates and rates of inflation, is based on the idea that traditional cointegration techniques are not powerful enough to accurately describe the relationship between the two variables. Their findings could not show support for the majority of the countries tested when traditional cointegration tests were employed, but when fractional cointegration tests were employed a large majority of the countries displayed results in support of the Fisher hypothesis. Gul (2007) observes the Fisher hypothesis in the context of the Turkish Economy. He employs the Johansen cointegration methodology and monthly interest and inflation rate data over the period 1990-2003. Gul (2007) is able to determine a long-run relationship between nominal interest rates and inflation but is unable to substantiate a one-for-one relationship between the two. With Latin America countries being well known for their high levels of inflation, analysis of the fisher effect in these countries has been very popular. Jorgensen and Terra (2003) apply a VAR model utilizing 4 variables in order to assess the relationship between interest rates and inflation in seven key Latin American counties (Brazil, Chile, Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Colombia and Venezuela). Their results are only able to prove t he fisher relation in Mexico and Argentina. Likewise, a Study by Thornton (1996) that explores the fisher hypothesis using 91- day Treasury bill rates, and inflation rates over the period 1978-1974 is also able to verify the fisher effect in Mexico. Phylaktis and Blake (1993) use cointegration techniques and unit root tests in their studies of the long-run fisher effect within Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina. Utilizing data over 1970-1980 they find that a one-for-one long run relationship between nominal interest rates and inflation rates exists in all three countries. A later study conducted by Carneiro, Divino and Rocha (2002) investigating the same three countries could only find support for the fisher effect in Argentina and Brazil. Carneiro, Divino and Rocha (2002) used monthly data over the 1980-1997 periods and carried out Johansen cointegration analysis and weak exogeneity tests to show that the interest rates changed in order to compensate for changes in expected inflation. T his was found in the context of Brazil and Argentina but analysis over the period of Mexico showed that inflation rates adjusted to reflect changes in interest rates. A key observation that arises from the Latin American studies above is the relative consistency in results with substantial evidence in favor of the fisher effect. Wafa and Sabah (2007) employ panel unit root tests for 10 East Asian countries3. Key motivation behind this choice of methodology was to achieve greater power in their tests compared to that of traditional unit root tests, by taking advantage of the cross-country differences in estimation of the data4. Using the panel unit root tests, Wafa and Sabah (2007) were able to prove a long-run relation existed between nominal interest rates and inflation for all the East Asian Countries. They find support for the view expressed by Granville and Mallick (2004) of monetary policy being a useful means of influencing long-term interest rates. A more recent test of the F isher hypothesis for 6 Asian countries5 by Nusair (2008) finds fairly contradictory results. Nusair (2008) analyses quarterly data over the period 1978-2005 and uses the Engle-granger procedure, Gregory-Hansen procedure, and Dynamic OLS tests (DOLS), to identify a long-run linear relationship between nominal interest rates and expected rates of inflation. Support for the Fisher hypothesis is obtained for Korea, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. Using the Engle-granger methodology Nusair (2008) finds robust evidence for Thailand, and weak evidence for Korea and Malaysia. The Gregory-Hansen method also used by Nusair (2008) â€Å"accounts for an endogenously determined shift in the cointegrating vector† and shows support at the 10% level for Singapore and Malaysia, and at the 5% level for Korea. In summary, robust support for the fisher effect is only found in Korea, Malaysia and Singapore. Peng (2009) finds similar results to that of Berument Ceylan Olgun (2007) in his analys is of the Fisher effect in China. Peng (2009) uses the Johansen maximum likelihood cointegration technique to study data over the period 1993-2005, and establishes a cointegrating association between nominal interest rates and inflation. Peng (2009) also employs the error correction model to determine long and short-run fisher effects, and find insufficient proof to support a short-run fisher effect. Paul (1984) is one of the earliest studies that analyses the Fisher effect, in the context of India. His research was aimed at studying the impact of the changing rates inflation rates on nominal rates of interest over the period 1952-1977. Using both short and long-term interest rates, results of his study found that there was a positive relationship between expected rates of inflation and nominal rates of interest, supporting Fishers hypothesis. In addition, Paul (1984) found that rises in expected rates of inflation were only partially passed on to nominal rates of interest, a fin ding highlighted by Fama (1975). On the contrary, a study by Payne and Ewing (1997) found no evidence of the Fisher effect in India. Applying the Johansesen cointegration methodology they assess the hypothesis in 9 developing countries (Argentina, Fiji, India, Niger, Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Singapore and Pakistan) but could only fully confirm the fisher effect in Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Malaysia. Other, significant studies of the Fisher hypothesis in the context of India include Nachane (1988) and Bhanumurthy and Agarwal (2002). Nachane (1988) finds that the administering of interest rates in India during the time was the reasoning behind not being able to find a one-for-one relationship between monthly interest rates and expected rates of inflation over the period 1970-1985. Bhanumurthy and Agarwal (2002) research the long-run relationship between nominal interest rates and expected inflation and utilize 3 different interest rates (Call money rate, Commercial paper and 364 d ay- Treasury bill rates) and rates of inflation. In their examination of monthly Indian data over the period 1990-2001 using an autoregressive distributed lag method, they could not find evidence to support the fisher relation. Thenmozhi and Radha (2005) also take into account the administering of interest rates in India and explore the short and long run movements of nominal interest rates and inflation. Employing cointegration techniques and error correction model, their findings reveal a long relationship between yields on 91-day treasury bills and inflation. They use the error correction model to take into account the short run alteration needed for the long run relationship. With evidence of co-movement between nominal interest rates and expected rates of inflation, they accept the Fisher hypothesis. Sathye, Canberra, Sharma and Liu (2008) examine the fisher hypothesis in emerging economies and focus on validating the fisher effect in India based on short-term nominal interest rates and inflation. They carryout Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root tests, utilize both the Engle-Granger and Johansen-Juselius cointegration techniques, and carry out Granger causality tests with Error correction model to determine the nature of the relationship between the two variables. Using monthly data over the period 1996-2004 they do not reject the existence of the Fisher effect in India, as results from both cointegration tests indicate a cointegrating relationship between short-term interest rates and expected rates of inflation. Sathye, Canberra, Sharma and Liu (2008) also show that â€Å"expected inflation is Granger caused by nominal short-term interest rates†, conveying the positive ability of short-term nominal interest rates in predicting future inflation. Many researchers have endeavored to try and justify, why the Fisher effect may not be present, and why it cannot be proved to the same extent as first hypothesized by Fisher (1930). Sahu, Jha and Meyer ( 1990), Hsing (1997) and Olekalns (1996) observe that the contradictory nature of empirical tests of the Fisher effect is a result of variation in methodologies and data used. With the Fisher equation containing unobservable parameter estimates such as expected rates of inflation, Sahu, Jha and Meyer (1990) emphasize that the robustness of tests of the fisher effect clearly depend upon the choice of proxy used. Nusair (2009) extends his previous study by investigating reasons why previous studies have failed to show support of the Fisher effect. Nusair (2009) claims that the reasoning behind the failures is due to the assumption that adjustments between nominal interest rates and inflation occur at a constant rate, and represent a linear relationship, when this is not the case in most inflation-targeting economies. Similarly, Christopoulos and Leon-Ledesma (2007) in their analysis of quarterly US nominal interst rates and CPI inflation rate are able to find a non-linear cointegrating relationship between the two. They apply Monte Carlo simulations to the data and results indicate that the nonlinearites are a key factor in obtaining a less than one-for-one relationship in the Fisher relation. Fisher (1930) himself is unable to empirically prove his theorized ‘one-for-one relationship in his study of US nominal rates of interest and inflation, only managing to attain correlation coefficients of a little less than one, and subsequently only moderately satisfying his hypothesis. One explanation for this, relates to the theory of money illusion. Money illusion can be described as the inability of agents to differentiate between changes in real and nominal variables. In a practical context, changes to the inflationary expectations of agents would not be fully accounted for in their intertemporal decision making, and subsequently not passed on through to nominal interest rates. Another explanation is based on ideas presented by Mundell (1963) and Tobin (1965). M undell (1963) states that as the rate of inflation rises consumer purchasing power is likely to decrease, and subsequently lead to a fall in real interest rates. Tobin (1965) puts forward the idea that as inflation rates rise, there is a greater opportunity cost for agents who hold cash money, this leads to a fall in the amount of cash balances held and to a rise in the amount of holdings of real capital. The incorporation of these two school of thoughts is more widely known as the Mundell-Tobin effect, and offer an explanation as to why nominal rates of interest rise by a factor smaller than one, in response to changes in inflation. Studies by Mishkin (1992), Hawtrey (1997), and Monnet and Weber (2001) have cited that the form, strength and efficiency of a countrys monetary policy is reflected in the ability of changes to expected inflation to transmit through to nominal interest rates. With the effectiveness of monetary policy being a key motivation behind investigation of the Fi sher effect, a significant study by Soderland (2001) shows that when the combination of an inflation-targeting outline, and an active monetary policy exist, the strength of the Fisher effect is reduced. Darby (1975) and Feldstein (1976) take into account the impact of taxes on the relationship between nominal interest rates and expected rates of inflation. Darby (1975) asserts that a premium should be included to ensure constant real interest rates and emphasizes that nominal interest rates will vary in response to changes in expected inflation by a factor larger than one. Studies by Peek (1992) and Engsted (1996) find substantial support for the ‘Darby-Feldstein effect. In contrast to the ‘Mundell-Tobin and ‘Darby-Feldstein effects the concept of the ‘Inverted Fisher effect researched by Carmichael and Stebbing (1983) and Barth and Bradley (1988), also provides an alternative explanation as to why the fisher effect cannot be proven in its theoretical form . Carmichael and Stebbing (1983) extend a model where nominal interest rates extracted from financial assets are described as remaining constant, thereby indicating an inverse relationship between real interest rates and inflation. Utilising quarterly data on 3-month US and Australian Tresuary bills over 1953-1978, Carmichael and Stebbing (1983) are able to find support for the Inverted Fisher effect. However, later studies by Barth and Bradley (1988), Moazzami (1991) and Woodward (1992) fail to obtain satisfactory support for the inverted Fisher hypothesis. From our study of the literature it is clear to see that the Fisher hypothesis/effect is a key macroeconomic relationship, and its popularity is highlighted though the substantial investigations of the Fisher effect in developed countries, and to a lesser extent in developing countries. Results from US and UK studies of the Fisher effect are fairly mixed, but overall are in favour of the fisher hypothesis. With research by Mi shkin (1992), Crowder and Hoffman (1996), Granville and Mallick (2004) and Ghazali and Ramlee (2003) all showing support for the long-run fisher hypothesis. Similarly, research utilising data from Australia and a mixture of European counties such as the G7, have on the whole been able to verify the existence of the Fisher effect. This is confirmed by studies by Berument and Jelassi (2002) and Berumant Ceylan Olgan (2007) who examine a comprehensive mixture of both developed and developing countries. Surprisingly, empirical literature analysing Latin American countries with their characteristically high, and volatile levels of inflation finds that the majority of the studies reveal fairly undisputed results in favour of the fisher effect. Investigations of many East Asian countries have yielded mixed results, with many researchers looking to analyse the impact of the Asian Financial crisis on the Fisher effect such as Nusair (2008). Research of the Fisher hypothesis/effect has been relatively scarce in the context of the Indian economy. However, studies by Paul (1984), Thenmozhi and Radha (2005), and more recently by Sathye, Canberra, Sharma and Liu (2008) are all able to justify the existence of the Fisher relation in India. In contrast, the use of Johansen cointegration techniques by Payne and Ewing (1997) and the application of an autoregressive distributed lag methodology by Bhanumurthy and Agarwal (2002) in their studies reject the existence of the Fisher effect in India. The popularity of two key methodologies employed in verifying a long-run relationship between nominal rates of interest and inflation, include the Engle Granger cointegration concept and the Johansen (1988) cointegration test. Many explanations as to why the Fisher effect cannot be found in its explicit theoretical form have been developed. A key and significant finding, suggests that major differentials in methods used to test the hypothesis, and the variation in proxies used for nomina l interest and inflation variables have been the cause of such a wide variety of results. Other explanations include the ‘Mundell-Tobin and ‘Darby-Feldstein effect, in addition, the concept of the ‘Inverted Fisher effect and the effectiveness of a countrys monetary policy. CHAPTER 4 – METHODOLOGY From the analysis of the literature surrounding the Fisher Hypothesis, this study aims to study the relationship between short-term nominal interest rates and inflation in India. Fisher (1930) claimed that a one-for-one positive relationship existed between expected rates of inflation and nominal interest rates. This dissertation chooses to follow similar econometric methodologies used by Mishkin (1992), Mishkin and Simon (1995) and Sathye, Canberra, Sharma and Liu (2008) to validate the Fisher effect in the context of the Indian economy. 4.1 THEORETICAL EMPIRICAL MODEL The relationship between nominal interest rates, ‘ex-ante real interest rates and expected rates of inflation are combined in Fishers (1930) equation: = + (1.4) With: ( ) = the nominal interest rate ( ) = the ‘ex-ante real interest rate ( ) = expected rates of inflation The ‘ex-ante real interest rate can be described as the unobservable, expected rate of real interest, with ‘ex-post real rates of interests indicating the actual rate. As mentioned previously both expected rates of inflation and ‘ex-ante real rates of interest must be proxied. The theory of rational expectations signified by Fama (1975) asserts that prospective variations in future prices are created by taking into account all available information the time. Hence, realised rates of inflation can be decomposed into the expected inflation rate ( ) together with a forecast error ( ). = + (1.5) This error term can be described as being completely random and can be translated as E ( ) = 0, and for this reason is stationary. Fisher (1930) postulates that the real rates of interest are constant; subsequently the ‘ex-ante real rate of interest ( ) can be created from a constant value (a) and a stationary error ( ): = a + (1.6) Substituting (1.6) into (1.4) and rearranging: = a + This equation is representative of the relationship hypothesised by Fisher (1930). Many past studies of the Fisher effect have incorporated expected inflation rates as a dependent variable, evaluating the equation below: = + + (1.7) Citing the methodology applied in Mishkin (1992) we rewrite the above equation as: = + + (1.9) where = + . This equation can be further modified to represent a regression framework: = + (1.10) Where, = the inflation rate at time t = the nominal interest rate at time t = the sum of the two stationary components at time t Considerable correlation between nominal interest rates and actual rates of inflation is one of the key conditi ons that validate the Fisher effect, with a one-for-one relationship describing the hypothesis in its strictest form. The coefficient in the regression equation represents the extent to which the Fisher effect holds. Subsequently, a coefficient of one would represent a unit proportional relationship between nominal interest rates and inflation, and a value of zero would represent the non-existence of the Fisher effect. Considering the nonstarionary charistecs of macroeconomic time series variables However, taking into account the nonstationary nature of macroeconomic time series data such as inflation and nominal rates of interest as proposed by Nelson and Plosser (1982), suggests that the estimation of equation (1.10) would be subject to the problem of spurious regression described by Granger and Newbold (1974). This is attributed to the fact that the t-ratios (on which the evaluation of the significance of the estimated coefficient is based on) could be misleading. Consequently, this could lead to possible invalid conclusions of the statistical relationship between the variables, and could therefore lead to false acceptances of the presence of the Fisher effect within the UK.

Essay on The Mytilene Debate and Athenian Debate - 1606 Words

The book written by Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, contains two controversial debates between distinguished speakers of Athens. The two corresponding sides produce convincing arguments which can be taken as if produced as an honest opinion or out of self-interest. The two debates must be analyzed separately in order to conclude which one and which side was speaking out of honest opinion or self-interest, as well as which speakers are similar to each other in their approach to the situation. In the Mytilene Debate the two speakers are Creon, presenting the side in favor of killing the people, and Diodotus, on the opposing side. The two speakers present their opinions on the best way to deal with the Mytilenean people†¦show more content†¦Diodotus takes the opposing side of Cleon, preferring not to kill the Mytileans. He does believes that the killing of the Mytileans will not instill fear in other cities and will have no effect on any future revolt. On the contrary he thinks that by yielding to Cleon=s proposal that the other cities will Anot only make much more careful preparations for revolt, but will also hold out against siege to the very end, since to surrender early or late means just the same thing.@(p.221, 46) He also believes that by taking Cleon=s side the Athenians will be making a mistake so they should Anot come to the wrong conlclusions through having too much confidence in the effectiveness of capital punishment, and must not make the conditions of rebels@(p. 221, 46) Diodotus does think that the Mytileans do deserve punishment for what they have done, but he does not think that killing is the proper punishment and that is should not be the answer. This makes since only because if the Athenians were to kill off every single city that wronged them they would eventually run out of cities to terminate and be leftShow MoreRelatedThucydides Accounts of the Degradation of Athenian Honor1065 Words   |  4 Pages Thucydides account of the Peloponnesian war served as a window into Athenian societal culture. Carrying the reader from Pericles moving speech to the assembly, through Cleon and Diodotus oratory battle over the fate of Mytilene, and finally to the Athenian proposal to the Melians, Thucydides detailed the transformation of Athens from a state based on justice and freedom to a empire with a corrupted soul. This corruption did not occur over night, but was the result of increasing tyrannical behaviorRead MoreEssay Moralit y And Power930 Words   |  4 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Thucydides’ written history of the Mytilenian Debate and the Melian Dialogue reflects the reality of a period where morality is dependent on the exercise of power and those who possess it. The main theme running through the course of these two debates is that those with the power to act as they wish inherently have the power to dictate morality. The arguments that decide the fate of the Mytilene are made not strictly on the basis of morality but on how their power allowsRead MoreThe Tragedy Hecuba Which Was Written By Euripides Essay1491 Words   |  6 Pagesof the Peloponnesian and Archidamian War which was fought between Athens and Sparta. Euripides was an Athenian who was born around 485BC on the island of Salamis which is off the coast of Piraeus. He competed several times in Athens’ annual City Dionysia, which, as we know, was a dramatic festival held in honour of Dionysus. This means that the majority of his audience would have been Athenians, like himself. So, just a quick introduction to the play. The key characters are HECUBA who was the QueenRead MoreThe Use of Rhetoric In Athenian Democracy Essay1814 Words   |  8 PagesRhetoric was a major factor in the development and maintenance of the Athenian government and was used by many in order to gain power and ascend in politics. The ascendance of the great demagogues in Athens during the time of the Peloponnesian war was heavily influenced by their rhetoric and ability to effectively guide the Athenian democracy. 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Pericles ascended to power at the empire’s height and was, according to Thucydides, the city’s most capable politician, a man who understood fully the nature of his city and its political institutions and used his understanding to further its interests in tandem with his own. After Pericles, however, Thucydides notes a drastic decline in the quality of Athenian leaders, culminating in Alcibiades,Read MoreJustice, Power, A nd Human Nature By Thucydides And The Republic By Plato1142 Words   |  5 Pagesjustice. As the empire grew in size and stature, the ugly side of human nature was expelled onto the rest of Greece. Cleon, an Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War, was described by Thucydides as â€Å"the most violent man in Athens.† He was advocating for the enslavement of the women and children as well as the slaughter of all the men of Mytilene during the Mytilenian Debate. Losing empathy and compassion creates a world of chaos and injustice. The prime instance of Athens’ tyranny was their interactionRead MoreRational Appeasement15291 Words   |  62 Pagesrationalizes selective appeasement, I hope to suggest the need for reconsideration+ Two Traditions Distrust of appeasement dates at least to the Peloponnesian War+ In the Athenian view, leniency toward hostile or even neutral city-states risked eroding the city’s reputation for toughness, thus undermining its empire+ As the Athenian envoys told the people of Melos: â€Å"if we were on friendly terms with you, our subjects would regard that as a sign of weakness in us, whereas your hatred is evidence of our

Developmental Psychology Attachment Essay - 1488 Words

Attachment is the formation of a two-way emotional bond between a child and an adult caregiver. It is an important part of developmental psychology, which is concerned with reasons and causes for human behaviour, addressing both nurture and nature aspects of childrearing. John Bowlby (1907-1990) is a key psychologist involved in the studies and theories concerning attachment. He summarised his point and the reason for attachment as follows: Based on the above, this essay intends to focus on Bowlby’s work which set out to discover links between early separation and later maladjustment through his ‘maternal deprivation hypothesis.’ This will include the reasons and importance of attachment, leading to correlations between a child’s†¦show more content†¦He also believed there was a ‘critical period,’ amounting to the first three years of a child’s life, whereby attachment deprivation in this period causes irreversible developmental effects. There are problems with these stages in that they are too rigid and do not allow for babies’ unpredictability and individualism, since they failed to take into account cultural or childrearing differences. Evidence for this was produced by Schaffer and Emerson (1964). They gained results in the observation of sixty babies which brought in some doubt to Bowlby’s monotropism theory. They observed the babies showing contradictory patterns of attachment, whereby nearly a third had formed several attachments as opposed to just one. Furthermore, by 10months old 60% of the babies had formed more than one attachment, for example with their grandparents or siblings. However, Lorenz (1952) conducted a study, with the use of goslings to try and demonstrate a similarity between attachment and imprinting in animals. This gave support to Bowlby’s belief concerning monotropy and the critical period, as the chicks would imprint of the first moving thing they saw, whether it was the actual mother goose or Lorenz himself. 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From this and in-depth discussion looking at how the previously discussed pieces of research have an effect on two particular disorders, depressionRead MoreAttachment Theory For Understanding Risk And Protection Factors Within Developmental Psychology1988 Words   |  8 PagesThis essay will comprise, firstly, on past research looking into what attachment/ attachment theory is, focusing on Bowlby’s (DATE) research into why an infant’s first attachment is so important. Followed, by the work of Ainsworth et al (1978) bringing to light the findings from the strange situation, and how the research can explain mental illness. 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Quaid E Azam- an Architect of Pakistan Free Essays

string(184) " Higher Education in England In 1892, at the age of only 16, he sailed to England to study and in 3 years, at age 19, he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England\." Submitted to: Sir Superman Submitted by: James Bond Degree ‘34’ Syndicate ‘CIA’ Date: 21-03-2013 CONTENTS Chapter 1 * Background * Quaid’s early life * Education Chapter 2 * Politics * Membership of Congress * Hindu-Muslim Unity * Devotion to Muslim League * Leadership of Muslims Chapter 3 * Thought of Separate Homeland * Pakistan Resolution * Gandhi-Quaid meetings * Views about Quaid Chapter 4 * Defending Policy of Quaid Chapter 5 * Formation of Federal Cabinet * Constitutional Problems * Establishment of Capital * Provincial Government Establishment of Administrative Headquarters * Foreign Affairs * Education Policy CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCES 1) Syed Shamsul Hassan ed. , Correspondence of Quaid-i-Azam M. A. We will write a custom essay sample on Quaid E Azam- an Architect of Pakistan or any similar topic only for you Order Now Jinnahand other papers, Shamsul Hassan collection, Organizational Matters, Vol. I (1936-1947) 2) Akbar S. Ahmed, Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity, (Karachi: Oxford University press, 1997) 3) Prof. Khurshid Ahmed, Islamic Ideology (Karachi: Karachi university,2002). 4) Quaid’s speech at university stadium Lahore, 30 october 1947 5) Syed Hussain Imam â€Å"Sterling qualities of Quaid†. ) Ahmad Khan Yusufi, Speeches, statements and messages of Quaid-e-Azam. 7) Rajmohan Gandhi, Eight Lives: A Study of the Hindu-Muslim Encounter (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1986) 8) Wikipedia the free Encyclopedia. 9) www. national heritage . government. pk 10) â€Å"Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah†. Government of Pakistan Website. 11) â€Å"Quaid-e-As is Mohammad Ali Jinnah†. The Jinnah Society. 12) â€Å"Jinnah: South Asia’s greatest ever leader†. 13) BBC’s Poll for South Asia’s greatest ever leader. 14) â€Å"The Father of Pakistan†. The Most Influential Asians of the Century by TIME. 15) â€Å"Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)†. Story of Pakistan. 16) â€Å"Jinnah’s speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan†. 11 August 1947. 17) â€Å"Jinnah’s Thought at a Glance†. Yes Pakistan. com. 18) â€Å"Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)†. Harappa. com. 19) â€Å"Pictures of Quaid (Album)†. Urdu Point. 20) â€Å"South Asia’s Clarence Darrow†. Chow. 21) â€Å"I Remember Jinnah†. Daily Dawn (newspaper). 22) â€Å"1947 – August†. Chronicles Of Pakistan ACKNOWLEDGE This research paper is dedicated to all those martyres who worked the reation of a separate home land for Muslims. They helped Quaid-e-As am in this great mission and gave sacrifices for our independence . They face many problems and hardships for the independence of Muslims in the subcontinent. I would like to thank James Bond for assigning this topic to me. It was tr uly an enlightening experience for me to do research on this topic. I would also like to thank my respected teacher Iron Man for guiding me and providing me with more than enough knowledge on this topic. The research was mainly done using the help of computers and internet therefore the bibliography section may look a little empty at first. But once one gets to visit these internet sites he is marveled by the amount of data provided on the respective topic. So hats off to all those people who are spending their precious time to run these enlightening websites. Without these the worth of internet would be much less in the context of knowledge. The main objective of this research paper is to highlights the efforts of the Quaid-e-As am Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the creation of Pakistan. His role in the formation of Pakistan and in the initial administration of Pakistan after independence because he handled all the problems of Pakistan when there were only few people who knew about administrative problems. ————————————————- INTRODUCTION Quaid-e-As am as an architect of Pakistan Some revisionist people criticize Pakistan and few even go so far as to question the integrity of Quaid-e-As am in demanding a separate homeland for the Muslims of Hindustan. This modern disease has even spread to those who live in the West but have Pakistani roots. It is however interesting that all these critical people studied in Pakistani schools, travelled on Pakistani passports and have families in that country. Painting a realistic image of Pakistan in our young people’s minds is the only way they can hope to have a sense of belonging to the country and the elderly generation has a duty to provide a great deal in helping such parents and families living abroad whose roots are still fastened firmly with this land. Coming back to he topic, it is very difficult to add something new or something that is not known about him. Yet the paradox is that the younger generation has to be reminded of his contribution to the history of Muslims of the Subcontinent What I want to share with you about Quaid, is not only the information from history books, magazines and films, but also what was told to me by my father and those who saw the Quaid, worked for t he cause of Pakistan and saw the creation of Pakistan. Pakistan’s story is so much linked with the life of the Quaid –e-As am that one cannot be told without the other. So who was this great man, who with the help of his type writer and an adoring sister created the largest country for Muslims in the world in a span of few years. In his biography of titled â€Å"Jinnah of Pakistan†, the American historian, Stanley Wilbert, makes the following observation that so accurately describes the legacy of Quaid and his footprint on history: â€Å"Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation-state. Muhammad Ali Jinnah did all three. During his lifetime, he brought the wisdom to walk in the path of honor, the courage to follow his convictions, and an abiding compassion for others. He enriched us all by the nobility of his spirit. ————————————————- ———————————â €”————- CHAP # 1 Quaid’s Early life Background According to Sarojini Naidu, a famous Congress politician, close friend and follower of Gandhi but also author of Quaid’s first biography, Quaid’s ancestors were Hindu Rajput who converted to Islam. Jinnah’s family belonged to the Ismailia Kahoka branch of Shi’a Islam. Early Education He studied at several schools at the Sind Madras a-tool-Islam in Karachi; briefly at the Goal Das Ten Primary School in Bombay; and finally at the Christian Missionary Society High School in Karachi, where, at age sixteen, he passed the matriculation examination other University of Bombay. Higher Education in England In 1892, at the age of only 16, he sailed to England to study and in 3 years, at age 19, he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England. You read "Quaid E Azam- an Architect of Pakistan" in category "Essay examples" During his student years in England, Jinnah came under the influence of 19th-century British liberalism, and his education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation and progressive politics. But later as an Indian intellectual and political authority, Jinnah would find his commitment to the Western ideal of the nation-state and the reality of Indian society of many religions, cultures and ethnic groups difficult to reconcile during his later political career. In 1896 he returned to India and settled in Bombay. He built a House in Malabar Hill, later known as Jinnah House. He Became a successful lawyer, gaining particular fame For his skilled handling. His reputation as a skilled lawyer Prompted Indian leader Bal Gangadhar Tikal to hire him as defense counsel for his sedition trial in 1905. Quaid argued that it was not sedition for an Indian to demand freedom and self-government in his own country. ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ——â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- ———————————————— ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- —————————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- ————————————————- CHAP # 2 Introduction to Politics Membership of Congress Soon after his return to India, he joined the Indian National Congress, which was the largest political organization in India. Like most of the Congress at the time, Jinnah did not favor outright independence, considering British influences on education, law, culture and industry as beneficial to India. Quaid had initially avoided joining the All India Muslim League, founded in 1906 because he regarded it as too religiously oriented. However he decided to provide leadership to the Muslim minority. Hindu-Muslim Unity ; Joining Muslim League His efforts to work for all Indians was so much respected that he was called; Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity. Eventually, he joined the Muslim League in 1913 and became the President at the 1916 session in Luck now. Jinnah was the architect of the 1916 Luck now Pact between the Congress and the League, bringing them together on most issues regarding self-government and presenting a united front to the British. Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. One Western journalist asked Quaid, why he never went to jail while all Congress leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Baldev Singh have been in many times in prison. Quaid replies: â€Å"I am a parliamentarian. Prison is for criminals†. In 1924 Quaid, officially reorganized the Muslim League and Devoted the next seven years attempting to bring about Unity among various ranks of Muslims and to develop Rational formula to effect a Hindu Muslim settlement, Which he considered the pre-condition for Indian freedom. This task was very difficult and was frustrated in the start. Balder Singh â€Å"He once remarked that every time, I put my hand in the pocket, I find forged coins, refereeing to disunity and internal fight among Muslim leaders†. Even if he was working tirelessly to unite Muslims in Hindustan, he attended several unity conferences between Congress and Muslim league. He wrote the â€Å"Delhi Muslim Proposals in 1927†, pleaded for the incorporation of the basic Muslim demands in the Nehru report, and formulated the â€Å"Fourteen Points† Furthermore, in 1927, Quaid entered negotiations with Muslim and Hindu leaders on the issue of a future constitution, during the struggle against the all-British Simon Commission. The Muslim League wanted separate electorates while the Nehru Report favored joint electorates. Quaid personally opposed separate electorates, but accepted the decision of his party. He then drafted compromises and put forth demands that he thought would satisfy both. These became known as the 14 points of Mr. Jinnah. However, they were rejected by the Congress and other political parties. The British government called 2 Round Table Conferences in London to let Hindustani leaders to work out their differences, but talks failed. Quaid was so disillusioned by the breakdown of talks, that in 1931 he relocated to London in order to practice in the Privy Council Bar. Devotion to Muslim League That was a dark time for Muslims in India. But luckily, prominent Muslim leaders like Allama Iqbal, the Aga Khan and Chaudhary Rah mat Ali made efforts to convince Quaid to return from London to India and take charge of a now-reunited Muslim League. In 1934 Quaid returned and began to re-organize the party, being closely assisted by Liquate Ali Khan, who would act as his right-hand man. In the 1937 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly, the League emerged as a competent party, capturing a significant number of seats under the Muslim electorate, but lost in the Muslim-majority Punjab, Sind and the North-West Frontier Province. After the election success, Quaid offered an alliance with the Congress – both bodies would face the British together, but the Congress had to share power, accept separate electorates and the League as the representative of India’s Muslims. That was a proof of Quaid was willing to go a long way to have an independent united Hindustan where Hindus and Muslims would be equal partners. The latter two terms were unacceptable to the Congress, which had its own national Muslim leaders and membership and adhered to One India. Even as Quaid held talks with Congress president Rajendra Prasad, Congress leaders suspected that Quaid would use his position as a lever for exaggerated demands and obstruct government, and demanded that the League merge with the Congress. The talks failed, and while Quaid declared the resignation of all legislators from provincial and central offices in 1938 as a â€Å"Day of Deliverance† from Hindu domination, some historians assert that he remained hopeful for an agreement. But it was becoming clearer to Quaid and his associates that may be Congress was interested in such solution. Gandhi often said to Quaid; â€Å"Let the British leave. Afterward, we can figure out a solution. † In one of his famous letters, Quaid asked Gandhi to be more precise as to how the power would be distributed. Gandhi replied; â€Å"My dear Jinnah, I cannot answer your questions because my inner light is not working†. Quaid wrote back; †To hell with your inner light. Why do not you admit that you have no answer to what I am asking†? ————————————————- CHAP # 3 The Idea of Pakistan By the way, a wish for a separate homeland for Muslims of Hindustan was in the air for some time. In a speech to the Muslim League in 1930, Llama Irbil raised the idea of an independent state for Muslims in â€Å"Northwest India†. Chaudhary Rah mat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state called â€Å"Pakistan†. Thought of Separate Homeland Following the failure to work with the Congress, Quaid, who had embraced separate electorates and the exclusive right of the Muslim League to represent Muslims, was converted to the idea that Muslims needed a separate state to protect their rights. He came to believe that Muslims and Hindus were distinct nations, with unbridgeable differences—a view later known as â€Å"the Two Nation Theory†. Quaid declared that a united India would lead to the marginalization of Muslims, and eventually civil war between Hindus and Muslims. This change of view may have occurred through his correspondence with Allama Iqbal, who was close to him. Pakistan resolution In the session in Lahore in 1940, the Pakistan resolution was adopted as the main goal of the Muslim League. The resolution was rejected outright by the Congress, and criticized by many Muslim leaders like Maulana Abu Kalama Azad, Khan Abdul Gaffer Khan, Side Abdul Al Muddy and the Jamaal-e-Islamic. On 26 July 1943, Quaid was stabbed and wounded by a member of the extremist Chasers in an attempted assassination. During the mission of British minister Stafford Cripps, Jinnah demanded parity between the number of Congress and League ministers, the League’s exclusive right to appoint Muslims and a right for Muslim-majority provinces to secede, leading to the breakdown of talks. When it became clear to both British and Congress party that Quaid and Muslim League would not budge from its demand, they made a common front against him. Gandhi-Quaid meetings In 1944 Gandhi held talks fourteen times with Quaid in Bombay, about a united front— while talks failed, Gandhi’s overtures to Jinnah increased as a last ditch effort to avoid the partition of Hindustan. But League was becoming very representative of all Muslims. The League’s influence increased in the Punjab after the death of Unionist leader Sikandar Hayat Khan in 1942. In the 1946 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the Congress won most of the elected seats, while the League won a large majority of Muslim electorate seats. Interim Government portfolios were announced on 25 October 1946. Muslim Leaguers were sworn in on 26 October 1946. The League entered the interim government, but Quaid refrained from accepting office for himself. This was credited as a major victory for Quaid, as the League entered government having rejected both plans, and was allowed to appoint an equal number of ministers despite being the minority party. The coalition was unable to work, resulting in a rising feeling within the Congress that independence of Pakistan was the only way of avoiding political chaos and possible civil war. Different views about Quaid Some revisionist historians like H M Serve and Ayesha Jalap assert that Quaid never wanted partition of India. It was actually the outcome of the Congress leaders being unwilling to share power with the Muslim League. It is asserted that Quaid only used the Pakistan demand as a method to mobilize support to obtain significant political rights for Muslims. Whatever the case may be, looking at the poor situation of Indian Muslims today and their second class status, Pakistanis should be grateful that Quaid gave up the idea of a united India after the British departure and insisted that Muslims in Hindustan should have their own homeland. Quaid has gained the admiration of major Indian nationalist politicians like Leal Krishna Advani whose comments praising Jinnah caused uproar in his own Bharatiya Janta Party Jessant Singh likewise praised Jinnah for standing up to the Indian National Congress and the British. Everyone from Mount baton, Gandhi, and Nehru down to ordinary persons, friend and foe all agreed that during his lifetime, he brought the wisdom to walk in the path of honor, the courage to follow his convictions, and an abiding compassion for others. He enriched us all by the nobility of his spirit. In his book â€Å"Verdict on India† (1944), Beverley Nichols, the British author and journalist has a chapter; Dialogue with a Giant. This is about his meeting with Quaid. He wrote; â€Å"Mr. Jinnah is in a position of unique strategic importance. He can sway the battle this way or that as he chooses. His 100 million Muslims will march to the left, to the right, to the front, to the rear at his bidding and at nobody else’s. If Gandhi goes, there is Nehru or Raj opal or Paten or a dozen others. But if Jinnah goes, who is there? † CHAP # 4 Jinnah’s Vision for Pakistan Defending Policy of Quaid In 1937, Quaid defended his ideology of equality in his speech to the All-India Muslim League in Luck now where he stated, â€Å"Settlement can only be achieved between equals. † He also had a rebuttal to Nehru’s statement which argued that the only two parties that mattered in India were the British Raj and INC. † Jinnah stated that the Muslim League was the third and â€Å"equal partner† within Indian politics. Quaid gave a precise definition of the term ‘Pakistan’ in 1941 at Lahore in which he stated: â€Å"Some confusion prevails in the minds of some individuals in regard to the use of the word ‘Pakistan’. This word has become synonymous with the Lahore resolution owing to the fact that it is a convenient and compendious method of describing it. Whilst giving an interview to American press representatives in July 1942, when asked by one of the journalists whether the Muslims were a nation or not, Quaid replied: â€Å"We are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, art and architecture, names and nomenclature, sense of values and proportion, legal laws and moral codes, customs and calendar, history and traditions, aptitudes and ambitions, in short, we have our own distinctive outlook on life and of life. By all cannons of international law we are a nation. † A controversy has raged in Pakistan about whether Jinnah wanted Pakistan to be a secular state or an Islamic state. His views as expressed in his policy speech on 11 August 1947 said: â€Å"I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State†. Jinnah, 11August 1947 – presiding over the constituent assembly. Quaid wanted a secular state, but with Islamic principles. The reason is that a true Islamic state is not a theocratic state â€Å"Pakistan is not going to be a theocratic State to be ruled by priests with a divine mission. We have many non-Muslims – Hindus, Christians, and Parses – but they are all Pakistanis. They will enjoy the same rights and privileges as any other citizens and will play their rightful part in the affairs of Pakistan†. Broadcast talk to the people of the United States of America on Pakistan recorded February 1948 Inaugurating the assembly on 11 August 1947, Quaid spoke of an inclusive and pluralist democracy promising equal rights for all citizens regardless of religion, caste or creed. This address is a cause of much debate in Pakistan as, on its basis, many claim that Jinnah wanted a secular state while supporters of Islamic Pakistan assert that this speech is being taken out of context when compared to other speeches by him. On 11 October 1947, in an address to Civil, Naval, Military and Air Force Officers of Pakistan Government, Karachi, he said: â€Å"We should have a State in which we could live and breathe as free men and which we could develop according to our own lights and culture and where principles of Islamic social justice could find free play†. On 21 February 1948, in an address to the officers and men of the 5th Heavy and 6thLight Regiments in Mali, Karachi, he said: â€Å"You have to stand guard over the development and maintenance of Islamic democracy, Islamic social justice and the equality of manhood in your own native soil. With faith, discipline and selfless devotion to duty, there is nothing worthwhile that you cannot achieve†. CHAP # 5 Quaid-e-As am as a Governor General On 14th August 1947, Quaid-e-As am Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the 1st Governor General. He remained Governor General for thirteen months. During this period, he solved many important national issues. Some of them are mentioned as under: Formation of Federal Cabinet As soon as the Quaid-e-As am took an immediate action and nominated members of the Federal Cabinet to run the Government affairs smoothly. Liquate Ali Khan was elected as the Prime Minister. Other members of the cabinet were also nominated. This first cabinet of Pakistan took oath on 15th August 1947. Members of the Cabinet 1. Vardar Abdul Rib Nester (Transports) 2. Raja Ghazanfer Ali Khan (Agriculture) 3. Fazal-ur-Rehman (Education) 4. I. I Chundrigar (Industry) 5. Glulam Mohammad (Finance) 6. Jogander Nath Mandala (Law) 7. Sir Afar Ulla Khan Adjani (Affair) Constitutional Problems The Act of 1935 was amended and enforced in the country as there was no constitution available of the newly born state. Thus this great achievement was done under the administrative leadership of the Quaid-e-As am. Establishment of Capital Karachi was made Capital of Pakistan. Provincial Government Quaid-e-As an elected Chief Minister and Governor. Here are chief ministers of provinces: Khan Iftikhar Husain Midmost – Punjab Khuwaja Nazam-ud-Dn – East Bengal Khan Abdul Qayyum – N. W. F. P Mohammad AyeChurro – Sind Chief Commissioner (British) – Baluchistan Administrative Head Quarters For the administrative reformation, a committee was set up and Chaudhary Mohammad Aye was made the Secretary General. Civil Services were re-organized and Civil Services Academy was constituted. The Secretariat was established. Moreover, Head-quarters for Army, Navy and Air Force were set up. An ammunition factory was also set up. Attention to Foreign Affairs Realizing the sensitivity of foreign affairs, Quaid-e-As am paid his utmost attention to the Foreign Policy. He developed healthy relations with the neighboring and developed countries that were the main objective of the Foreign Policy. Membership of UNO After independence, Quaid-e-As am paid immediate attention for acquiring membership of the United Nations Organization (UNO). On 30th September 1947, Pakistan became the member of the UNO. This all, was done under the dynamic leadership of Quaid-e-As am. Implementation of Education Policy Education plays an important role in the development of a country. It improves living standard of a nation and development. Education sector also needed attention at the time of independence. For this purpose, he held the first Educational Conference in 1947. He wished that every citizen of Pakistan should serve his nation with honesty and national spirit. He made nation with honesty and national spirit. He made acquisition of scientific and technological education compulsory for the students. Quaid-e-As am did a lot to improve education policy of the country. In the Service of Pakistan Quaid-e-As am served his country till his death. Despite his bad health, he kept on going through the important files. He succumbed to deadly disease of consumption. First Cabinet of Pakistan First cabinet of Pakistan was also elected by Quaid-e-As am. He took of it. Liquate Ali Khan was first Prime Minister of Pakistan. CONCLUSION In the conclusion I would like to say that Quaid was great leader and a true Muslim and he was a real architect of Pakistan. He was great leader and he proved it by the creation of Pakistan and he is guiding star for the generation to come and he is role model for generation to come. Limitations First of all I am thankful to Allah Almighty who enabled me to make this assignment. It is wisely said that one feels no pains after he has been successful in doing a work. But I would like to mention some as they are asked. I live in hired hostel where internet is not available. Therefore, I faced many difficulties in gathering data. Moreover, I do not have my own computer so I had to work on my roommate’s computer or on the lab computer. I had much burden of studies of other subjects. So, I could not give as much concentration to this assignment. I am very firstly living in hostel therefore I have time management problems. I also do not possess very vast general knowledge. Bibliography * Syed Shamsul Hassan ed. , Correspondence of Quaid-i-Azam M. A. Jinnahand other papers, Shamsul Hassan collection, Organizational Matters, Vol. I (1936-1947) * Akbar S. Ahmed, Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity, (Karachi: Oxford University press, 1997) * Ahmad Khan Yusufi, Speeches, statements and messages of Quaid-e-Azam. * BBC’s Poll for South Asia’s greatest ever leader. * â€Å"1947 – August†. Chronicles Of Pakistan. * â€Å"I Remember Jinnah†. Daily Dawn (newspaper). â€Å"Jinnah’s speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan†. 11 August 1947. * â€Å"Jinnah’s Thought at a Glance†. Yes Pakistan. com. * â€Å"Jinnah: South Asia’s greatest ever leader†. * â€Å"Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)†. Story of Pakistan. * â€Å"Mohammed Ali Jinnah (187 6–1948)†. Harappa. com. * Prof. Khurshid Ahmed, Islamic Ideology (Karachi: Karachi university,2002). * â€Å"Pictures of Quaid (Album)†. Urdu Point. * Quaid’s speech at university stadium Lahore, 30 october 1947. * â€Å"Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah†. Government of Pakistan Website. * â€Å"Quaid-e-As is Mohammad Ali Jinnah†. The Jinnah Society. Rajmohan Gandhi, Eight Lives: A Study of the Hindu-Muslim Encounter (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1986). * Syed Hussain Imam â€Å"Sterling qualities of Quaid†. * â€Å"South Asia’s Clarence Darrow†. Chow. * â€Å"The Father of Pakistan†. The Most Influential Asians of the Century by TIME. * Wikipedia the free Encyclopedia. * www. national heritage . government. pk ————————————————- ———————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- THE END†¦ ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- How to cite Quaid E Azam- an Architect of Pakistan, Essay examples

Network Security and Prevention Methods †Free Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Wireless Network Security and Prevention Methods. Answer: Introduction: The wireless network is prevented by the un-authentication and unauthorised access of data through the process of wireless security. With the increase of services provided by the wireless network, the risks associated with it is also increasing. A wireless access point is the most security concern because it can serve as the access point for the hackers who can access the confidential information of the user for enabling illegal activities (Saleh, 2013). Wired equivalent privacy and Wi-Fi protected access are the most commonly used wireless security. The policies which are used for securing the wireless network are wireless intrusion prevention system and wireless intrusion detection system. Challenges: The unauthorised access of wireless network can takes place through links, function, data, program code, and others. The prevention methods can be applied to the known mode of attacks. Every operation performed on the wireless network opens the door for the attacker to attack on the network which creates the scene of threatening. The following are some challenges in the wireless security which can cause disruption in the operational working of the organization: Challenges Short Falling of the organization Access control Vulnerability is the major challenge with the wireless network Authentication Insufficient practices for securing the wireless network. Authorization Lack of procedures of authentication Security of data Privacy of the data is not kept Detection of intrusion Compromising and misplacing of data Prevention from the intrusion Access of the network is given to the user without any necessary security control Monitoring system Monitoring of wireless network is a complex task. Problems: Some of the common modes of attack are listed below in the table: Types of attacks Description Accidental association The security perimeter can be violated by the accidental association. The overlapping of the network through wireless access point without the knowledge the user can create the entrance of security breaches. It can result into loss of confidential information and exploitation of the computer system. Wireless vulnerability is the cause of accidental association. It can be caused due to the association of the use on different APIs Malicious association Malicious association occurs when the wireless devices make use of the software created by the hackers. The hackers can get the access of the system through the access points. The security measures of virtual private network does not put barrier on the malicious attack. AdHoc network The security threat can be caused to AdHoc network. The Adhoc network is the point to point wireless connection of the network which does not possess access point. The Adhoc network act as a bridge for the corresponding network in the business world. The operation performed in the unsecured adhoc network can create the entrance for the security breaches. The exposure of private data can occur on the indirect bridges. The indirect bridge is created between the user system and the LAN connection. Non-traditional network The use of Bluetooth devices and personal network Can be the source of security breaches. MAC Spoofing The problem of MAC spoofing occurs when the hacker is able to crack the MAC address of the computer. Mac filtering is used for authorised the system with the Mac ID for gaining access and utilizing the network. The security through Mac filtering is efficient in the small network. It fails in the environment of organization network. Man in the middle attack Man in the middle attack occurs when hacker entered into the network through the medium of the access point. Hotspot is the area of security threats. The de-authentication attack can be executed by using handshake protocols. Denial of service attack When the large request of connection is sent to the access point, the situation of denial of service attack occurs. It can interrupt te flow of data on the network. Extensible authentication protocol is the failure in the denial of service attack. The organization data can be disclosed to the hackers. Prevention methods: There are three principles used for securing the wireless network which are described below: In the environment of closed network, the access points are configured for putting restriction on the access of data (Wuest, 2010). The restrictions are in the form of encryption methods such as Mac Address. The wireless LAN security can be implemented by using the network model of wireless intrusion prevention system. In the large organization, the isolation of the wireless network is used for preventing open and unencrypted data (Mylonas, 2016). The security measures should be checked and update periodically for the betterment of wireless security program. The user cannot access the internet through any local devices. All the web traffic is forwarded to the captive portal, when the use asked to access data then he has to pay for taking authorisation. The virtual private network can be used for securing the network of the enterprise. It has been analysed, in wireless network more security is required than wired network. In the wireless network, the hacker can get the access of the network through backdoors (Sari, 2015). For securing the access through backdoors, the peer to peer encryption method is required. Some of the security measures are described in the table below: Security Measures Descriptions SSID hiding It is the simple method of securing the wireless network by hiding the service set identifier. The efforts for casual intrusion can be protected. Mac ID filtering Pre-approved Mac address is allowing access to the network. Mac ID filtering is used is used for securing the wireless access points (Laeeq, 2011). The sniffing process can be used by the authorised user for securing the Mac address from spoofing. Static IP addressing The IP addresses are provided to the client through the medium of DHCP in the environment of wireless access points (Preston, 2014). The client can make their own IP addresses which is difficult for the hacker to predict it. 802.11 security The authentication mechanism approved by IEEE standard is used to secure Wireless LAN network. Wired Equivalent privacy The wired equivalent security mechanism can be used for wireless network ratification. It is used for securing modern equipment. WEP protocol is used for upgrading the equipment residing on the organization network. TKIP protocol is used for improving the wired equivalent privacy. Wi-Fi protected access It is the security protocol which is used for addressing the problems occurred in wired equivalent privacy methods. It is the combination of 802.11 IEEE standard and FIPS 140-2 compliance. The keys and the encryption schemes restrict the user to access the network. Wi-Fi protected access is the improved security measure over wired equivalent privacy. RADIUS based authentication is used for securing the enterprise through Wi-Fi protected access. The sequence of key should be created for inclusion of encrypting the message (Gowsalya, 2012). The pre-shared shared key is used for establishing authentication mechanism (Bhatnagar, 2015). It make used of 8 to 63 character password. The hexadecimal string is used for developing shared key. TKIP (Temporary key integrity prototcol) 802.11i is the IEEE standard for temporary key integrity protocol. The message integrity check can be performed by re-keying system. This protocol helps in overcoming the problem of WEP. Applications: The wireless network is successfully used in satellite connections, broadcast radio, infrared communication, Wi-Fi, Microwave communication, mobile communication system, Bluetooth technology, and many others. The wireless network is the accumulation of television remote control, security system, cell phones, Wi-Fi, wireless power transfer, computer interface devices, and others. Some of the common applications of wireless network are smart phones which makes use of android system which depends on induction motor control, Automation in home based on Arduino, load management system controlled by phone, cell phone used in robotic vehicle movement, LED make use of dialled telephone number, load control system by making use of DTMF, message communication between two wireless computer, sequential load operation based on android, electronically controlled notice board for remotely controlling the android, android application based on remote operated domestic appliances, generation of remote password for controlling the operation securely in the application based on android operating system, remote control home automation system, and many more. Impact of issues on real life: Wireless network change the scenario of the medical world. The wireless network helps in bringing social change all over the world. The capabilities of the wireless communication help in protecting the environment (Bidgoli, 2015). The mobile phones and other devices can be used for measuring the temperature of the location, endangered species around the area, increases the productivity of the organization, connects people from all over the world, and others (Ahmad, 2012). Reflection and summary: From the analysis of wireless security, I concluded that the basic step which should be followed are conduction of risk assessment plan, designing of the security program, indulging of monitoring process, countermeasures for vulnerabilities, and maintenance for overcoming the problem of security attack and associated vulnerabilities. Conclusion: The advancement of wireless technology creates the picture of challenge for wireless security. Every operation performed on the wireless network opens the door for the attacker to attack on the network which creates the scene of threatening. The security measures should be checked and update periodically for the betterment of wireless security program. References: Ahmad, A. (2012).Types of security threats and its prevention (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://ijcta.com/documents/volumes/vol3issue2/ijcta2012030240.pdf Bidgoli, H. (2015).Handbook of information security, threatsm vulnerabilities, and prevention (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0RfANAwOUdICpg=PA93lpg=PA93dq=Research+paper+pdf+on+wireless+network+security+and+prevention+methodssource=blots=pGTo6qv3rjsig=QrlN3OCi_wtlxlRzERbffBnN9EIhl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwjp0YfKvYbUAhXDRY8KHYHxC3s4ChDoAQgzMAM#v=onepageq=Research%20paper%20pdf%20on%20wireless%20network%20security%20and%20prevention%20methodsf=false Bhatnagar, R. (2015).Wi-Fi security: A literature review of security in wireless network (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=trct=jq=research%20paper%20pdf%20on%20wireless%20network%20secuirty%20and%20prevvention%20methods%20source=webcd=9cad=rjauact=8ved=0ahUKEwiU7-WcvYbUAhXMs48KHedICEIQFghqMAgurl=https://www.impactjournals.us/download.php%3Ffname%3D2-77-1431690921-4.%2520Eng-%2520Wi-Fi%2520Security%2520A%2520Literature%2520Review%2520of%2520Security%2520in%2520Wireless%2520Network-Ruchir%2520Bhatnagar.pdfusg=AFQjCNGkDZDzLTuf05jYc3-ncdoRivuIKg Gowsalya, M. (2012).Detection and prevention of congestion attacks on wireless network (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://ijettjournal.org/volume-3/issue-3/IJETT-V3I3P210.pdf Laeeq, K. (2011).Security challenges and prevention in wireless communications (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Security_Challenges_Preventions_in_Wireless_Communications.pdf Mylonas, P. (2016).Real life paradigm of wireless network security attacks (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.image.ece.ntua.gr/papers/703.pdf Preston, D. (2014).Security measures in wired and wireless networks (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_iict09_s4paper2.pdf Saleh, Z. (2013).Wireless networking security in Jordan (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://airccse.org/journal/nsa/5413nsa03.pdf Sari, A. (2015).Comparative analysis of wireless security protocol (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://file.scirp.org/pdf/IJCNS_2015121715205514.pdf Wuest, C. (2010).Wireless networking security (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://www.infosec.gov.hk/english/technical/files/wireless.pdf

Sustainable Climatic Change Adaptation Plan-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Sustainable Climatic Change Adaptation Plan? Answer: Introduction Climatic change is the critical determinant that ensures the sustainable condition of life. From 1850, the mean global temperature has increased in a systematical manner by the effect of burning fossil fuel and greenhouse gasses. The change in mankind, agriculture, food, behavior, location, cost, preservation, conservation, speed and the relativity of technology all these are critical aspects which are connected with the adaptive change in climatic conditions. The report shed light on the climatic condition of Melbourne, a city of Australia. The zero-emission strategy of their municipality commission has impacted over the global change in the environment in Australia. Climate change is a risk for the sustainable climatic condition thus their focus and commitment has imposed over the progressive nature of adaptation procedure. The industrious revolution, food accessibility, food system all these are changed by the time and that expected change is come because of that weather condition . In this report, the discussion over a change in the climatic conditions in Australia and the position over the risk orientation with it show in an illustrious view so that adaptive measures are being taken. Climatic and geographical influence Different weather systems are persisted in Australia that affects the natural environment and significant climate features in changed atmospheric conditions. Melbourne is situated at the southern part of city center. The greenery and the forest accumulation mad ethe city fresher and have no issue regarding the climatic change. The phase of El Nino provides extensive warming due to the effect of coastal Pacific Ocean, the average rainfall is being set as the cooling and water supply is being related by the process. Vision over the climatic change in Melbourne has adapted by several goals and principles. The Indian Ocean also provides a certain effect in Australian climatic change (Vardoulakis et al. 2014). Sea surface temperature has been noted as high by the influence of Indian Ocean. The technical report has given from CSIRO has illustrated the estimation of seasons, rainfalls, temperatures and humidity. In Melbourne, four climatic changes are found that must get a significant impac t on the potential climatic conditions. The condition of decline rainfall and drought situation can make a huge impact on the climatic situation of Melbourne. The declaration of annual rainfall in rainy days considered a huge fall as in 2030 the percentage of declaration will 6% and in 2070 the declining percentage will be 10- 19%. The rise of annual temperature will have a sudden increase of 0.3 to 1.0-degree celsius and 0.6 to 2.5-degree celsius by 2050. The rainfall intensity has got an increase of 0.9% by 2030 and 3.0 to 5.9% by 2070. Thus, combustion of green house gases, burning influence of fossil fuel and industrial revolution has made a greater impact over the atmosphere (Wroe et al. 2013). Rainfall circulation is the peak in the tropical zone and decrease of rainfall in eastern and southern Australia. Sea level has risen almost 1.4 mm per year and extreme fire weather days have increased in 2010 and onwards. The depth of snow is decreasing by the time and intensity of the temperature and records are being set from 2013 onwards. Climatic change positioning The change in a climatic system is noticed and as the 90% of extra energy is being produced by the accumulated climatic change thus long-term surface temperature is sustained which is exactly not required for the country. The major challenge in Melbourne climatic adaptation is risk management and the effective strategies to mitigate this. There are some critical areas where water supply is the concern risk factor because of reduced rainfall. There is some extreme temperature rise of Melbourne that affected the average high temperature of 7-degree centigrade (VanDerWal et al. 2013). There are some key changes that make a considerable change in the climatic condition in Australia. The expected growth in emissions that impacted over the agriculture, ecosystem and biodiversity in Australia. There are certain obligations where global climate change adaptation is the key aspect to indulge in. The adverse impact of climatic changes in Pacific and Asia has impacted over the climatic condition over Australia. The effective global mitigation policies and expected IPCC projection have based on the examined point of view of impactful results regarding the climatic changes. In the World Food Summit in 1996, the declaration of the food supply is asserted as the nutritious and healthy food intake is the dietary need and preference of the people. People should intake the healthy and safe food. If food system has been changed by the influence of climatic change than the insecurities over the food metabolism and the potential impact of the food insecure countries have evolved in a greater way. Food supply has been depending on the three segmentation of food analysis. These are the availability of food, trend, and level of food and variability of access and supplies of food (Urban 2015). Health, hygiene, and consumption all these are related to the food supply and nutritional process of the system. Refugees policies and imposed penalties are implemented to save the refugees from the external disturbance. However, the climatic change forces the refugees to move their place and roam for the better and suitable places. The impact of high temperature and the extr eme prediction of annual temperature growth in Melbourne have projected in the scenario. There are some immigration activities that curtailed the population percentage and retained the facility for the children and women. Community placement, work right problem, case support accession, security assessment these all are the denied proximal vividness that impacted over the refugee movements (Taylor et al. 2013). ABF Act implemented effect from 1st July 2015 to precede the immigration process in an ethical way [Refer to Appendix 3]. Risk management issue owed to climatic change Climate change in 2020 or 2050 is assumed as the most drastic change in environment. The way global warming is engrossing and the consistent contributions of greenhouse effect are carried over the mitigation of these things are quite challenging for the world. Melbourne has considered that mitigate the warming of 5% within 2020. This is a challenging task as the trajectory range of warming is increasing at an average by 40 to 60 % in the global aspect. Hence, risk behind the cost disruption and assumed climatic change can make the better impact over the next generation. There are certain climate models like temporal resolution and spatial resolution which offers calculative calmative variables and horizontal grid of determining longitude and latitude specification on a change in climate. The equitation mathematical representation analysis with grid variation and progression of climate model has emphasized on the parallel changes in restoration and temporal understanding on the improv ed scenario of climatic changes (Change et al. 2014). Other forms of risk management included the two scenarios in global change. The first one is high emission scenario and the other is very low emission scenario. The affected scenarios in this aspect are land surface, Biosphere, atmosphere, and ocean where the evaporation from land and evaporation from Ocean has happened in a drastic way. In such cases, heavier rain periods have seen thereafter. Flooding increases bushfires and sea level rise is the accused scenario for these situations (Howes et al. 2015). Adaptation plan Adaptation plans need to be taken for controlling the measure and define the probable climatic extension so that life can sustain in this earth. In Australia, annual rainfall, wind projection, temperature issues all these can be controlled by the two adaptive strategies management. The infrastructure of the country may have been designed in a better way so that climatic effects may mitigate in a bit (Adger et al. 2013). The next adaptation strategies are agriculture, this is one of the most important and effective strategies that must be implemented in a right manner so that in this global warming arena normal atmosphere sustain in the desired way. Current climate condition and appraising the adoption plans are important for the sections development as well as multilateral environmental facts (Leonard et al. 2013). Capacity gap and assessing the development need in climate versatilities are important to make strategies so that risk can be mitigated. National Adaptation Plan (NAP) is essential understanding to make stocktaking on the climate change, as the addressing climatic changes are sensitive enough to deal with the technical capacity and co-benefit adaptation. Implementation strategies like promoting coordination and regional level of synergy have to be planned in an ethical way so that enhancement of appropriate strategy must implement to sustain good environment culture of the environment. In case of initiating or launching a process of NAP, legitimate climatically change and developed measure can serve the public awareness as well (Wheeler, Zuo and Bjornlund 2013). Therefore, adaptive policies are must be taken for strengthening the cooperative activities and for the evaluation performances to support the conventional process of mitigating the effect of climatic changes. Conclusion Therefore, the report can be concluded that changing climate is an important issue that creates a great impact on all the aspects of Melbourne. The reason may be global warming of the greenhouse gas inflation in the world but the sufferer is always the lively once. The depth of snow decline as well as the rain in some parts, some parts of Australia is flooded through. So the contrasting scenario is presented for that reason. Sea level rise or the frequent hotter climatic change has made a hint of imbalance situation in the atmosphere. Thus in future, the whole world and Melbourne too can surface a big trouble to mitigate that. Hence, to avoid such consequences, proper planning and adaptation policies are taken for the developed and systematic change in climate. References: Adger, W.N., Barnett, J., Brown, K., Marshall, N. and O'Brien, K., 2013. Cultural dimensions of climate change impacts and adaptation. Nature Climate Change,3(2), p.112. Change, I.P.O.C., 2014. IPCC.Climate change. Howes, M., Tangney, P., Reis, K., Grant-Smith, D., Heazle, M., Bosomworth, K. and Burton, P., 2015. Towards networked governance: improving interagency communication and collaboration for disaster risk management and climate change adaptation in Australia.Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,58(5), pp.757-776. Leonard, S., Parsons, M., Olawsky, K. and Kofod, F., 2013. The role of culture and traditional knowledge in climate change adaptation: Insights from East Kimberley, Australia.Global Environmental Change,23(3), pp.623-632. Taylor, R.G., Scanlon, B., Dll, P., Rodell, M., Van Beek, R., Wada, Y., Longuevergne, L., Leblanc, M., Famiglietti, J.S., Edmunds, M. and Konikow, L., 2013. Ground water and climate change.Nature Climate Change,3(4), p.322. Urban, M.C., 2015. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change.Science,348(6234), pp.571-573. VanDerWal, J., Murphy, H.T., Kutt, A.S., Perkins, G.C., Bateman, B.L., Perry, J.J. and Reside, A.E., 2013. Focus on poleward shifts in species' distribution underestimates the fingerprint of climate change.Nature Climate Change,3(3), p.239. Vardoulakis, S., Dear, K., Hajat, S., Heaviside, C., Eggen, B. and McMichael, A.J., 2014. Comparative assessment of the effects of climate change on heat-and cold-related mortality in the United Kingdom and Australia.Environmental health perspectives,122(12), p.1285. Wheeler, S., Zuo, A. and Bjornlund, H., 2013. Farmers climate change beliefs and adaptation strategies for a water scarce future in Australia.Global Environmental Change,23(2), pp.537-547. Wroe, S., Field, J.H., Archer, M., Grayson, D.K., Price, G.J., Louys, J., Faith, J.T., Webb, G.E., Davidson, I. and Mooney, S.D., 2013. Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea).Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,110(22), pp.8777-8781.